Next-generation consumer and automotive audio is becoming increasingly sophisticated, and market drivers such as generative AI-based audio processing, immersive soundscapes, and advanced infotainment in software-defined vehicles demand stepped-up audio DSP performance. However, a single DSP can no longer meet escalating compute needs, while multiple DSPs pose significant programming challenges.

Today, OEMs and SoC vendors must perform all multicore hardware design and software development on their own while facing increased time-to-market pressures. At the same time, programmers are grappling with the complexity of software-based synchronization of shared memory regions and the proper partitioning of tasks across the multicore cluster. This can result in designs falling short of performance expectations.

Broadcom Inc. announced today that it is now shipping the Tomahawk 6 switch series, delivering the world's first 102.4 Terabits/sec of switching capacity in a single chip - double the bandwidth of any Ethernet switch currently available on the market. With unprecedented scale, energy efficiency, and AI-optimized features, Tomahawk 6 is built to power the next generation of scale-up and scale-out AI networks, delivering unmatched flexibility with support for 100G/200G SerDes and co-packaged optics (CPO). It offers the industry's most comprehensive set of AI routing features and interconnect options, designed to meet the demands of AI clusters with more than one million XPUs.

"Tomahawk 6 is not just an upgrade - it's a breakthrough," said Ram Velaga, senior vice president and general manager, Core Switching Group, Broadcom. "It marks a turning point in AI infrastructure design, combining the highest bandwidth, power efficiency, and adaptive routing features for scale-up and scale-out networks into one platform. Demand from customers and partners has been unprecedented. Tomahawk 6 is poised to make a rapid and dramatic impact on the deployment of large AI clusters."

Elgato is proud to unveil Wave Link 2.0, the latest evolution of its powerful audio management software, which introduces incredible new features and major quality-of-life improvements. Highlights include Voice Focus, an integrated tool that ensures crisp vocals in any space, and One-Click Audio Routing for easy setup and customization. Overall, Wave Link 2.0 redefines audio management by addressing several universal challenges content creators and digital professionals face.

Voice Focus, a tool developed in collaboration with ai|coustics, brings cutting-edge vocal enhancements to Elgato Wave mic and audio interface users. By leveraging ai|coustics' advanced machine learning technology, the tool removes unwanted noise, room reverb, and echo—while isolating the user's voice and elevating it to professional quality standards. Designed for users who may not have the knowledge or patience to configure audio effects, Voice Focus delivers studio-grade results in seconds. Whether streaming, podcasting, or meeting, everyone sounds professional—even in spaces with poor acoustics.

Montage Technology today announced the customer sampling of its PCIe 6.x/CXL 3.x Retimer -- M88RT61632, which is designed to enhance connectivity performance for demanding high-bandwidth applications such as AI and cloud computing. This milestone extends the company's PCIe product portfolio, building upon its successful PCIe 4.0 and PCIe 5.0/CXL 2.0 Retimer solutions.

The PCIe 6.x/CXL 3.x Retimer delivers excellent performance with data rates up to 64 GT/s, twice that of PCIe 5.0. Powered by Montage Technology's proprietary PAM4 SerDes IP, the chip achieves superior signal integrity with link budget up to 43dB while maintaining low latency. Its innovative DSP architecture effectively addresses PCIe 6.x system design challenges including crosstalk and signal reflection. In addition, the chip features advanced link training and enhanced telemetry, enabling comprehensive link monitoring and fault diagnostics for high-reliability AI cluster deployments.

AMD today announced the expansion of the AMD Versal adaptive system-on-chip (SoC) portfolio with the introduction of the Versal RF Series that includes the industry's highest compute performance in a single-chip device with integrated direct radio frequency (RF)-sampling data converters.

Versal RF Series offers precise, wideband-spectrum observability and up to 80 TOPS of digital signal processing (DSP) performance in a size, weight, and power (SWaP)-optimized design, targeting RF systems and test equipment applications in the aerospace and defense (A&D) and test and measurement (T&M) markets, respectively.

Marvell Technology, Inc., a leader in data infrastructure semiconductor solutions, today introduced Marvell Ara, the industry's first 3 nm 1.6 Tbps PAM4 interconnects platform featuring 200 Gbps electrical and optical interfaces. Building on the success of the Nova 2 DSP, the industry's first 5 nm 1.6 Tbps PAM4 DSP with 200 Gbps electrical and optical interfaces, Ara leverages the comprehensive Marvell 3 nm platform with industry-leading 200 Gbps SerDes and integrated optical modulator drivers, to reduce 1.6 Tbps optical module power by over 20%. The energy efficiency improvement reduces operational costs and enables new AI server and networking architectures to address the need for higher bandwidth and performance for AI workloads, within the significant power constraints of the data center.

Ara, the industry's first 3 nm PAM4 optical DSP, builds on six generations of Marvell leadership in PAM4 optical DSP technology. It integrates eight 200 Gbps electrical lanes to the host and eight 200 Gbps optical lanes, enabling 1.6 Tbps in a compact, standardized module form factor. Leveraging 3 nm technology and laser driver integration, Ara reduces module design complexity, power consumption and cost, setting a new benchmark for next-generation AI and cloud infrastructure.

For over half a century, general-purpose processors have been built on the Tomasulo algorithm, developed by IBM engineer Robert Tomasulo in 1967. It's a $500B industry built on specialized CPU, GPU and other chips for different computing tasks. Hardware startup Ubitium has shattered this paradigm with a breakthrough universal processor that handles all computing workloads on a single, efficient chip - unlocking simpler, smarter, and more cost-effective devices across industries - while revolutionizing a 57-year-old industry standard.

Alongside this, Ubitium is announcing a $3.7 million in seed funding round, co-led by Runa Capital, Inflection, and KBC Focus Fund. The investment will be used to develop the first prototypes and prepare initial development kits for customers, with the first chips planned for 2026.

Micron Technology, Inc., today announced it has begun qualification of the 6550 ION NVMe SSD with customers. The Micron 6550 ION is the world's fastest 60 TB data center SSD and the industry's first E3.S and PCIe Gen 5 60 TB SSD. It follows the success of the award-winning 6500 ION and is engineered to provide best-in-class performance, energy efficiency, endurance, security, and rack density for exascale data center deployments. The 6550 ION excels in high-capacity NVMe workloads such as networked AI data lakes, ingest, data preparation and check pointing, file and object storage, public cloud storage, analytic databases, and content delivery.

"The Micron 6550 ION achieves a remarkable 12 GB/s while using just 20 watts of power, setting a new standard in data center performance and energy efficiency," said Alvaro Toledo, vice president and general manager of Micron's Data Center Storage Group. "Featuring a first-to-market 60 TB capacity in an E3.S form factor and up to 20% better energy efficiency than competitive drives, the Micron 6550 ION is a game-changer for high-capacity storage solutions to address the insatiable capacity and power demands of AI workloads."

Edifier International, the award-winning audio electronics designer, announces the NeoDots True Wireless earbuds featuring a hybrid driver unit combined with a digital signal processor for the optimum in sound quality.

The combination of dynamic drivers and balanced armature drivers in audio equipment allows a broad frequency response, where dynamic drivers effectively manage low frequencies, delivering deep and rich bass, whilst the balanced armature drivers handle mid and high frequencies ensuring clear and detailed treble. This synergy results in a well-rounded sound profile that enhances the listening experience across different music genres and audio content.

Logitech G, a brand of Logitech and leading innovator of gaming technologies and gear, introduced today at Logi Play the Logitech G ASTRO A50 5th Generation Wireless Gaming Headset and Base Station. It joins its bigger brother, the A50 X, to form the new A50 family of high-performance gaming headsets with advanced feature sets for multi-platform gamers.

The A50 Generation 5, now with PLAYSYNC AUDIO, is based on the same architecture as our award-winning A50 X, offering a streamlined and versatile feature set tailored for multiplatform gamers. The new PLAYSYNC AUDIO feature is designed specifically for players who want to use USB for seamless audio switching between console and PC platforms and don't require HDMI video switching.

QCY, Hele Electronics' premium audio brand launched the AilyBuds Pro series on May 25. These Semi In-ear Adaptive Active Noise Canceling (ANC) earbuds emphasize High-Definition Sound Quality and Comfortable Wear. The AilyBuds Pro+ enhances the standard AilyBuds Pro with LDAC codec support and Hi-Res Audio Wireless certification.

High-Resolution Sound Quality
Equipped with a large 13 mm bio-diaphragm dynamic driver and Hi-Fi 5 DSP High-definition Decoding, The AilyBuds Pro series delivers an expansive soundstage. Thanks to Adaptive Low-frequency Compensation Tech, they offer punchy bass and detailed vocals. Packed with LDAC and Hi-Res Audio, the AilyBuds Pro+ provides a Hi-res audio experience across the entire sound chain. What's more, Ultra Wide Frequency Adaptive EQ is applied to adjust the sound by automatically calculating your ear canal, wearing status, and volume level - all the way from 20 Hz to 2000 Hz - to provide precise compensation in merely 2 seconds to reveal authentic sound.

NVIDIA has been offering its GPU IP for more than a decade now ever since the introduction of Kepler uArch, and its IP has had relatively low traction in other SoCs. However, that trend seems to be reaching an inflection point as NVIDIA has given MediaTek a license to use its GPU IP to produce the next generation of processors for the auto industry. The newest MediaTek Dimensity Auto Cockpit family consists of CX-1, CY-1, CM-1, and CV-1, where the CX-1 targets premium vehicles, CM targets medium range, and CV targets lower-end vehicles, probably divided by their compute capabilities. The Dimensity Auto Cockpit family is brimming with the latest technology, as the processor core of choice is an Armv9-based design paired with "next-generation" NVIDIA GPU IP, possibly referring to Blackwell, capable of doing ray tracing and DLSS 3, powered by RTX and DLA.

The SoC is supposed to integrate a lot of technology to lower BOM costs of auto manufacturing, and it includes silicon for controlling displays, cameras (advanced HDR ISP), audio streams (multiple audio DSPs), and connectivity (WiFi networking). Interestingly, the SKUs can play movies with AI-enhanced video and support AAA gaming. MediaTek touts the Dimensity Auto Cockpit family with fully local AI processing capabilities, without requiring assistance from outside servers via WiFi, and 3D spatial sensing with driver and occupant monitoring, gaze-aware UI, and natural controls. All of that fits into an SoC fabricated at TSMC's fab on a 3 nm process and runs on the industry-established NVIDIA DRIVE OS.

Intel, Microsoft, and a fabless semiconductor company making analog, mixed-signal, and audio DSP, Cirrus Logic, have collaborated on a new reference laptop design to showcase the upcoming Lunar Lake mobile CPUs. The goal is to enable "cool, quiet, and high-performance" laptops that push the boundaries of efficiency, thickness, and acoustics. The reference design incorporates three key components from Cirrus Logic - the CP9314 power converter chip, CS42L43 audio codec, and CS35L56 amplifier. The CP9314 is the most critical element, using advanced power conversion technology to improve Lunar Lake's power efficiency significantly. This enables thinner and quieter laptops with longer battery life. The codec and amplifier chips also play a role, providing high-quality audio with next-generation features like spatial audio support.

Together, these Cirrus Logic components aim to highlight Lunar Lake's capabilities for efficiency, performance, and immersive experiences in a thin and light form factor. While details remain scarce on the Lunar Lake CPUs themselves, they are expected to arrive later this year, likely in the second half. If the reference laptops live up to their promises, Lunar Lake could help Intel regain leadership in mobile computing efficiency, which has been lacking since the introduction of Apple's M series SoCs, which have superior battery life. With expert collaboration from Microsoft and Cirrus Logic on the peripheral hardware and software, Lunar Lake may usher in a new generation of cool, quiet, and powerful laptops.

MediaTek, one of the first adopters of Wi-Fi 7 technology, now has the industry's most comprehensive Wi-Fi 7 portfolio with today's introduction of the company's new Filogic 860 and Filogic 360 solutions. Together, these second-generation additions aim to further expand MediaTek's platform of cutting-edge products that utilize the latest technology advancements in connectivity while achieving peak performance and always-on reliability.

Filogic 860 combines a Wi-Fi 7 dual-band access point with a new advanced network processor solution and is ideal for enterprise access points, service provider Ethernet gateways and mesh nodes, as well as retail and IoT router applications. Filogic 360 is a stand-alone client solution that integrates Wi-Fi 7 2x2 and dual Bluetooth 5.4 radios in a single chip, and is designed to deliver next-generation Wi-Fi 7 connectivity to edge devices, streaming devices and a vast array of other consumer electronics.

At the 2023 Computex, HyperX unveiled the latest addition to the iconic Cloud line of gaming headsets that practically set the brand up as a leading gaming headset manufacturer. The new HyperX Cloud III is a successor to 2015s Cloud II, and comes with several design and feature improvements. The headset builds on the characteristic that made the original HyperX Cloud popular—comfort during lengthy gaming sessions. The company is using an upgraded earcup design, a newer generation of memory foam, and a premium leatherette. It uses 53 mm neodymium drivers, and an upgraded mic, including an all new mic stock design. The headset supports three wired interfaces, including 4-pole 3.5 mm analog, USB type-A, and USB type-C. When used in USB mode, you get additional LED effects, and can take advantage of certain DAC-level DSPs, such as DTS Headphone X. The headphones provide 10 Hz to 21 kHz frequency response, with <2% THD. The mic uses an elecrtet condenser element, is uni-directional, and has a -42 dBV sensitivity. HyperX is pricing the wired HyperX Cloud III at USD $99.99.

MOONDROP's Blessing2 (and Blessing2:Dusk) IEMs get credited for being a benchmark in the world of in-ear monitors at the $300 price point, having re-defined expectations and besting far more expensive products when it comes to technical and tuning performances. A successor has been hotly anticipated thus and now we have the all-new Blessing 3 coming in at the same $320 price point. It uses a 2 DD/4 BA hybrid driver configuration paired with a see-through resin shell that has greatly improved comfort owing to a smaller shell and nozzle—thus addressing the biggest issue with the Blessing2—and a polished stainless steel nozzle on top. The Blessing 3 uses MOONDROP's VDSF tuning to put forth a neutral/bright tuning that we'll examine in more detail in an upcoming review, but those who can't wait can purchase the product from retailers such as HiFiGo right now.

Releasing alongside is a Bluetooth neckband accessory called LittleWhite. It uses a Cirrus Logic CS4131 DAC and has digital signal processing support integrated with a first-party app to allow for specific MOONDROP wired IEMs to have EQ profiles generated so they all get tuned similarly to hit the desired target easier. This can help significantly as seen in our recent coverage of the MOONDROP Quarks DSP, and MOONDROP promises high quality Bluetooth audio with a long battery life (~12 hours). The LittleWhite supports Bluetooth 5.2 with codecs including aptX and LHDC courtesy the Qualcomm QCC5144 SoC, has integrated microphones for calls, and the app provides parametric EQ support for other IEMs you wish to use wirelessly too. It sells for $89.99 from retailers including HiFiGo for those interested.

Edifier, the forward-thinking audio-technology brand, have announced the release of the QD35 - a tabletop, Bluetooth speaker expertly designed combining high spec audio features with 'Lumia Art' effects for the best acoustic/visual effect. The term Lumia was coined by a twentieth-century artist, Thomas Wilfred, when artists began to promote colors and light together in their works as a form of art that uses light. 'Lumia Art' was originally associated with music then latterly paintings. The QD35 is a perfect example of how Edifier have created an aesthetically pleasing speaker incorporating a brilliant, kaleidoscopic display of colored lights. Various preset light effects are available but users can also customize their own light effects using the Edifier Connect app.

The QD35 is an all-in-one music system. It is certified to both "Hi-Res Audio" and "Hi-Res Audio Wireless" standards. The USB-A port and the AUX jack on the rear panel support high-resolution audio signals. With the enhancement of LDAC technology, users can also stream high-quality music with a 96 kHz sampling rate to this speaker via Bluetooth.

Renesas Electronics Corporation, a premier supplier of advanced semiconductor solutions, today announced that it will present the first live demonstrations of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) implementations on an MCU based on the Arm Cortex -M85 processor. The demos will show the performance uplift in AI/ML applications made possible by the new Cortex-M85 core and Arm's Helium technology. They will take place in the Renesas stand - Hall 1, Stand 234 (1-234) at the embedded world 2023 Exhibition and Conference in Nuremburg, Germany from March 14-16.

At embedded world in 2022, Renesas became the first company to demonstrate working silicon based on the Arm Cortex-M85 processor. This year, Renesas is extending its leadership by showcasing the features of the new processor in demanding AI use cases. The first demonstration showcases a people detection application developed in collaboration with Plumerai, a leader in Vision AI, that identifies and tracks persons in the camera frame in varying lighting and environmental conditions. The compact and efficient TinyML models used in this application lead to low-cost and lower power AI solutions for a wide range of IoT implementations. The second demo showcases a motor control predictive maintenance use case with an AI-based unbalanced load detection application using Tensorflow Lite for Microcontrollers with CMSIS-NN.

Hailo, the pioneering chipmaker of edge artificial intelligence (AI) processors, today announced its groundbreaking new Hailo-15 family of high-performance vision processors, designed for integration directly into intelligent cameras to deliver unprecedented video processing and analytics at the edge. With the launch of Hailo-15, the company is redefining the smart camera category by setting a new standard in computer vision and deep learning video processing, capable of delivering unprecedented AI performance in a wide range of applications for different industries.

With Hailo-15, smart city operators can more quickly detect and respond to incidents; manufacturers can increase productivity and machine uptime; retailers can protect supply chains and improve customer satisfaction; and transportation authorities can recognize everything from lost children, to accidents, to misplaced luggage. "Hailo-15 represents a significant step forward in making AI at the edge more scalable and affordable," stated Orr Danon, CEO of Hailo. "With this launch, we are leveraging our leadership in edge solutions, which are already deployed by hundreds of customers worldwide; the maturity of our AI technology; and our comprehensive software suite, to enable high performance AI in a camera form-factor."

Over the past few weeks, the legal dispute between Arm Ltd. and Qualcomm Inc. has been warming up the eyes of the entire tech community. However, as per the latest court filing, Arm could change its licensing strategy and shift its whole business model into a new direction that would benefit the company directly. Currently, the company provides the intellectual property (IP) that chip makers can use and add to designs mixed with other IPs and custom in-house solutions. That is how the world of electronics design (EDA) works and how many companies operate. However, in the Qualcomm-Arm legal battle, Qualcomm's counterclaim has brought new light about Arm's plans for licensing its hardware designs past 2024.

According to Dylan Patel of SemiAnalysis, who examined court documents, Arm will reportedly change terms to use its IP where the use of other IP mixed with Arm IP is prohibited. If a chip maker plans to use Arm CPU IP, they must also use Arm's GPU/NPU/ISP/DSP IPs. This would result in devices that utilize every design the UK-based designer has to offer, and other IP makers will have to exclude their designs from the SoC. By doing this, Arm directly stands against deals like the Samsung-AMD deal, where AMD provides RDNA GPU IP and would force Samsung to use Arm's Mali GPU IP instead. This change should take effect in 2025 when every new license agreement has to comply with new rules.

After more than three years in development, we are extremely excited to launch our brand-new streaming and gaming division, RØDE X. Building on our legacy as the world's leading audio brand for content creators, RØDE X is dedicated to developing high-performance audio solutions specifically for streamers and gamers. RØDE X distils the same passion for innovation, accessibility and Australian-made quality that RØDE is renowned for into a new range of cutting-edge audio solutions that meet the unique needs of streamers and gamers. The new division employs a dedicated streaming and gaming R&D department appointed to developing a brand-new product line, of which the first three products are now available worldwide: UNIFY, a virtual mixing solution custom-designed for streaming and gaming, and two new professional USB microphones - the XDM-100 dynamic USB microphone and XCM-50 condenser USB microphone.

"We are incredibly excited about the launch of RØDE X," said RØDE CEO Damien Wilson. "For more than three decades, RØDE has been the go-to audio brand for the world's creators. We have made it our mission to provide professional audio solutions to musicians, filmmakers, podcasters and broadcasters. Listening to and learning from creators is what we do and has led to the development of groundbreaking products like the VideoMic, RØDECaster Pro and Wireless GO. Now we're doing the same for streamers and gamers."

According to the latest TrendForce statistics, revenue of the top ten global IC design houses reached US$39.56 billion in 2Q22, growing 32% YoY. Growth was primarily driven by demand for data centers, networking, IoT, and high-end product portfolios. AMD achieved synergy through mergers and acquisitions. In addition to climbing to third place, the company also posted the highest annual revenue growth rate in 2Q22 at 70%.

Qualcomm continues in the No. 1 position worldwide, exhibiting growth in the mobile phone, RF front-end, automotive, and IoT sectors. Sales of mid/low-end mobile phone APs were weak but demand for high-end mobile phone APs was relatively stable. Company revenue reached US$9.38 billion, or 45% growth YoY. NVIDIA benefitted from expanded application of GPUs in data centers to expand this product category's revenue share past the 50% mark to 53.5%, making up for the 13% YoY slump in its game application business, bringing total revenue to US$7.09 billion, though annual growth rate slowed to 21%. AMD reorganized its business after the addition of Xilinx and Pensando. The company's embedded division revenue increased by 2,228% YoY. In addition, its data center department also made a considerable contribution. AMD posted revenue of US$6.55 billion, achieving 70% growth YoY, highest amongst the top ten. Broadcom's sales performance in semiconductor solutions remained solid and demand for cloud services, data centers, and networking is quite strong. The company's purchase order backlog is still increasing with 2Q22 revenue reaching US$6.49 billion, an annual growth rate of 31%.

Airoha Technology today announced that its new series of Bluetooth audio chips have successfully completed the latest Bluetooth Low Energy Audio Qualification Process. This is one of the most important R&D achievements of its Bluetooth audio R&D team consisted of hundreds of engineers, who continues to revolutionize the wireless audio end device market. The "flagship" and "professional" series of chipsets support LE audio and Bluetooth 5.3 for multiple applications such as True Wireless Stereo (TWS) earbuds, Bluetooth smart speakers, assistive listening devices, and Bluetooth transmitters. The products are currently being tested by many brand customers and are expected to be available worldwide in the first half of 2023.

"The LE Audio specifications are the most important milestone reached in the Bluetooth audio industry in the past decade. With the support of our strong R&D team consisting of hundreds of engineers who have accumulated nearly a decade of technical expertise, Airoha became one of the world's first certified chip providers. This supports many customers to accelerate the launch of their end devices. The wireless audio innovation brought by the latest Bluetooth LE technology will expedite the process by which consumers and businesses enjoy the convenient and innovative services it brings, fully demonstrating the Airoha's vision and business philosophy." said Yuchuan Yang, Sr. Vice President of Airoha.

Marvell (NASDAQ: MRVL) today announced the industry's first 800 Gbps or 8x 100 Gbps multimode platform solution, that enables data center infrastructure to achieve dramatically higher speeds for short-reach optical modules and Active Optical Cable (AOC) applications. As artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) and high-performance computing (HPC) applications continue to drive greater bandwidth requirements, cloud-optimized solutions are needed that can bring lower power, latency and cost to short-range data center interconnections. The new 800G platform, which includes Marvell's PAM4 DSP with a multimode transimpedance amplifier (TIA) and Driver, enables faster data center speeds scaling to 800 Gbps, using conventional cost-effective vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) technology while accelerating time-to-market with plug-and-play deployment.

Today's data centers are packed with equipment utilizing optical modules or AOCs connected by multimode optical fiber optimized for communication over short distances within data centers. This 100G per lane multimode fiber provides cost-effective, low-power, short-reach connectivity. To support multi-gigabit transmissions, multimode architectures often use VCSEL transmitters, which offer the cost benefits of reliability, power efficiency and easy deployment.

xMEMS Labs today introduced Montara Pro, the world's first monolithic MEMS µspeaker with integrated DynamicVent enabling smart TWS earbuds and hearing aids that create best-of-both-worlds user experiences combining the benefits of closed-fit (occluded) and open-fit earbuds. xMEMS is providing first demonstrations of Montara Pro this week at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas.

Montara Pro's patented DynamicVent technology can be intelligently opened or closed by the earbud system DSP based on ambient noise levels detected by microphones or the listener's activity from motion sensors. With the vent closed, Montara Pro creates a listening environment with the best passive isolation for music and media consumption or for improved focus in the presence of background noise. With the vent open, Montara Pro enables improved spatial awareness, increased listening comfort, and reduced occlusion effects, such as the perception of the user's own voice as too loud, "boomy," or "hollow." Equally important, DynamicVent eliminates the need for traditional static vents that create a persistent low frequency roll-off that impacts music and media quality and also impacts consumers with low-frequency hearing loss. The DynamicVent can also eliminate the need for oversized speakers in earbuds that are commonly used to compensate for low frequency loss caused by persistent, static vents.